The East India Company's steamer 'Nemesis' and other boats destroying the Chinese war junks in Anson's Bay during the First Opium War, 7 January 1841, artist Granger;
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Before the Opium Wars…
Maritime trade between China and Europe began in the sixteenth century with the Portuguese. Soon the Spanish were bringing in large amounts of silver to the Asian trade network. By the seventeenth century, British ships were beginning to appear along the coast of China and by the 1680s, the Qing dynasty relaxed maritime trade restrictions. By the nineteenth century, the China’s maritime trade restrictions were again fully enforced and it found itself in a direct conflict with Western Europe. The First Opium War (1839 – 1842) pitted China against the British Empire. The Second Opium War (1856 – 1860) found France joining forces with Britain against China, amongst a few other notable countries. The path that took China towards these wars ultimately became the catalyst towards the beginning of the “unequal treaties” of Asia.
The First Opium War…
Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Chinese goods were in high demand in Europe but the market for western goods in China was nonexistent. Not only was China self-sufficient, but trade laws denied foreigners access to the interior of China and the emperor banned trades of most European goods as well. Canton was the only port that was open to foreign commerce, and all trade was required to go through the Cohung and the Thirteen Factories, known as the Canton System. This forced Europeans to pay with silver for any Chinese goods, effectively depleting their silver supply. At this time the British, through the East Indian Company, were producing opium and began using it as an alternative to silver as a form of payment for the silks, teas, spices, and other goods that were being provided by China. As the drug grew in popularity in China, so did its growth in the smuggling trade since it was banned by the emperor. By 1820, the Chinese merchants were exporting silver to pay for opium and by 1838 the British were selling 1,400 tons of opium to China. In 1839, the emperor of China refused to legalize and tax opium and as a result 20,000 chests of opium were confiscated. By the end of 1839, the First Opium War had begun. Over the next two and half years, British forces steadily moved into China with their superior military force. During this time, the Qing dynasty was also dealing with the Sino-Sikh war and their military was further strained as a front was dispatched to Tibet. The First Opium War ended with the signing of the fist of the “unequal treaties”, the Treaty of Nanking, in August of 1842 between China and Britain.
The Treaty of Nanking…
The purpose of this treaty was to change the way foreign trade was handled within China. It eliminated the Cohung and the Thirteen Factories, opened four more ports to foreign trade, and merchants were allowed open access. China had to pay a total of 21 million dollars that included compensation for the confiscated opium as well as war reparations. Hong Kong was also given to the British as a crown colony, yet the problems of the opium trade were not resolved. This treaty was the first of the “unequal treaties” between western powers and China, and termed unequal because it was imposed on China rather than including mutually beneficial terms between equal nations.
The Second Opium War…
During the 1850s there was a rapid growth in imperialism. Since the opium trade that was a catalyst for the first war was never resolved, smuggling of opium continued to plague China. The British, intent on expanding their privileges in China, demanded the renegotiation of the Treaty of Nanking. Their list of demands included legalizing the opium trade, opening all of China to British merchants, exempting foreign imports from internal transit duties, regulating Asian trade, allowing the British ambassador to reside in Beijing, and allowing all English-language versions of treaties to take precedence over the Chinese. Not only were all of the demands rejected by the Qing dynasty, but they were still trying to keep out as many foreign merchants as possible, and treated the Chinese merchants that traded with the British at treaty ports badly. The British tried to protect the friendly Chinese merchants by allowing their ships British registration in the hopes that Chinese officials would not obstruct ships flying British flags. In 1856 a Chinese boat, the Arrow, used to smuggle opium was stopped because it was falsely flying a British flag. Chinese officials boarded the ship and took down the flag. The British took this opportunity to renew their old conflict with China in order to force the treaty revision. In this same year, a French missionary was executed and this gave France a reason to join the British and pressure China on missionary issues. This began the Second Opium War. Over the next four years, Anglo-French armies captured cities and ports and eventually Beijing. On October 18, 1860, the Second Opium War ended with the ratification of the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin by the Emperor of China in the Convention of Peking, and included Britain, France, Russia, and the United States.
The Treaty of Tientsin…
The purpose of this treaty was to revise the older Treaty of Nanking giving more rights to Western powers. Great Britain, France, Russia, and the U.S. were allowed diplomatic representatives in Beijing, eleven more ports opened to foreign trade, foreign vessels including warships were allowed to navigate freely on the Yangtze River, and another 2 million silver dollars were paid to both Britain and France as well as 3 million silver dollars to British merchants. Foreigners were allowed access to internal regions of China to travel, trade, or missionary purposes and religious liberty was given to all Christians in China. The United States was one of the leading signing “treaty powers” and forced open a total of 23 foreign concessions, or long-term leases of land, from the Chinese government.
Lasting Effects…
The treaties of Nanking and Tientsin opened numerous ports in China opening the country to foreign trade. The tea and silk industries flourished, but as farmers switched from producing food to tea and silk, food prices rose uncontrollably. China could not compete with the lower cost machine made textiles from the west and unemployment soared. Poverty quickly spread throughout China and there were uprisings against the government. Since the treaties also exempted foreigners from Chinese law, criminals and pervasive illegal activity found an accommodating home. Hong Kong remained a colony of Great Britain until it was handed back to China in July 1997.
This once powerful dynasty was completely humiliated and after the war, a major modernization movement began in China. This effort, The Self-Strengthening Movement, lasted from 1861 – 1895 and was a period of institutional reforms. While the ruling elite still believed in Confucianism, many officials contended that it was imperative to strengthen China by adopting Western military technology and armaments. They learned about western political ideas, social structures, and economies even as the relationship between China and the West changed forever.
Maritime trade between China and Europe began in the sixteenth century with the Portuguese. Soon the Spanish were bringing in large amounts of silver to the Asian trade network. By the seventeenth century, British ships were beginning to appear along the coast of China and by the 1680s, the Qing dynasty relaxed maritime trade restrictions. By the nineteenth century, the China’s maritime trade restrictions were again fully enforced and it found itself in a direct conflict with Western Europe. The First Opium War (1839 – 1842) pitted China against the British Empire. The Second Opium War (1856 – 1860) found France joining forces with Britain against China, amongst a few other notable countries. The path that took China towards these wars ultimately became the catalyst towards the beginning of the “unequal treaties” of Asia.
The First Opium War…
Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Chinese goods were in high demand in Europe but the market for western goods in China was nonexistent. Not only was China self-sufficient, but trade laws denied foreigners access to the interior of China and the emperor banned trades of most European goods as well. Canton was the only port that was open to foreign commerce, and all trade was required to go through the Cohung and the Thirteen Factories, known as the Canton System. This forced Europeans to pay with silver for any Chinese goods, effectively depleting their silver supply. At this time the British, through the East Indian Company, were producing opium and began using it as an alternative to silver as a form of payment for the silks, teas, spices, and other goods that were being provided by China. As the drug grew in popularity in China, so did its growth in the smuggling trade since it was banned by the emperor. By 1820, the Chinese merchants were exporting silver to pay for opium and by 1838 the British were selling 1,400 tons of opium to China. In 1839, the emperor of China refused to legalize and tax opium and as a result 20,000 chests of opium were confiscated. By the end of 1839, the First Opium War had begun. Over the next two and half years, British forces steadily moved into China with their superior military force. During this time, the Qing dynasty was also dealing with the Sino-Sikh war and their military was further strained as a front was dispatched to Tibet. The First Opium War ended with the signing of the fist of the “unequal treaties”, the Treaty of Nanking, in August of 1842 between China and Britain.
The Treaty of Nanking…
The purpose of this treaty was to change the way foreign trade was handled within China. It eliminated the Cohung and the Thirteen Factories, opened four more ports to foreign trade, and merchants were allowed open access. China had to pay a total of 21 million dollars that included compensation for the confiscated opium as well as war reparations. Hong Kong was also given to the British as a crown colony, yet the problems of the opium trade were not resolved. This treaty was the first of the “unequal treaties” between western powers and China, and termed unequal because it was imposed on China rather than including mutually beneficial terms between equal nations.
The Second Opium War…
During the 1850s there was a rapid growth in imperialism. Since the opium trade that was a catalyst for the first war was never resolved, smuggling of opium continued to plague China. The British, intent on expanding their privileges in China, demanded the renegotiation of the Treaty of Nanking. Their list of demands included legalizing the opium trade, opening all of China to British merchants, exempting foreign imports from internal transit duties, regulating Asian trade, allowing the British ambassador to reside in Beijing, and allowing all English-language versions of treaties to take precedence over the Chinese. Not only were all of the demands rejected by the Qing dynasty, but they were still trying to keep out as many foreign merchants as possible, and treated the Chinese merchants that traded with the British at treaty ports badly. The British tried to protect the friendly Chinese merchants by allowing their ships British registration in the hopes that Chinese officials would not obstruct ships flying British flags. In 1856 a Chinese boat, the Arrow, used to smuggle opium was stopped because it was falsely flying a British flag. Chinese officials boarded the ship and took down the flag. The British took this opportunity to renew their old conflict with China in order to force the treaty revision. In this same year, a French missionary was executed and this gave France a reason to join the British and pressure China on missionary issues. This began the Second Opium War. Over the next four years, Anglo-French armies captured cities and ports and eventually Beijing. On October 18, 1860, the Second Opium War ended with the ratification of the 1858 Treaty of Tientsin by the Emperor of China in the Convention of Peking, and included Britain, France, Russia, and the United States.
The Treaty of Tientsin…
The purpose of this treaty was to revise the older Treaty of Nanking giving more rights to Western powers. Great Britain, France, Russia, and the U.S. were allowed diplomatic representatives in Beijing, eleven more ports opened to foreign trade, foreign vessels including warships were allowed to navigate freely on the Yangtze River, and another 2 million silver dollars were paid to both Britain and France as well as 3 million silver dollars to British merchants. Foreigners were allowed access to internal regions of China to travel, trade, or missionary purposes and religious liberty was given to all Christians in China. The United States was one of the leading signing “treaty powers” and forced open a total of 23 foreign concessions, or long-term leases of land, from the Chinese government.
Lasting Effects…
The treaties of Nanking and Tientsin opened numerous ports in China opening the country to foreign trade. The tea and silk industries flourished, but as farmers switched from producing food to tea and silk, food prices rose uncontrollably. China could not compete with the lower cost machine made textiles from the west and unemployment soared. Poverty quickly spread throughout China and there were uprisings against the government. Since the treaties also exempted foreigners from Chinese law, criminals and pervasive illegal activity found an accommodating home. Hong Kong remained a colony of Great Britain until it was handed back to China in July 1997.
This once powerful dynasty was completely humiliated and after the war, a major modernization movement began in China. This effort, The Self-Strengthening Movement, lasted from 1861 – 1895 and was a period of institutional reforms. While the ruling elite still believed in Confucianism, many officials contended that it was imperative to strengthen China by adopting Western military technology and armaments. They learned about western political ideas, social structures, and economies even as the relationship between China and the West changed forever.